Indian Civilization Essay

Indian Civilization Essay Introduction India civilization begins from riverbanks which is the Indus river and the Ganges river. India derives its name from the Indus river. Knowledge of Indian civilization has come from two leading cities: Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. These cities are carefully planned where they had wide, straight streets lined with brick houses. These cities had elaborate drainage and sewer systems. Achievements in science and technology of ancient India are divided into few sub parts such as mathematics, astronomy, list of Indian inventions, etc. The history of science and technology in India begins with prehistoric human activity at Mehrgarh (known as Pakistan in present-day) and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. The British colonial rule introduced western education in India in its efforts to give rise to a native class of civil servants, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutes of higher learning. Following independence, science and technology in the Republic of India has included automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences. The earliest evidence of technological progress in the Indian subcontinent is to be found in the remains of the Harappan civilization (4000-3000 BC). Archaeological remains point to the existence of well-planned urban centres which is orderly fashion along with roads and drainage systems complementing them. The drainage systems were particularly remarkable for the times since they were built underground and were constructed in a manner to allow for regular cleaning. Smaller drains from private homes connected to the larger public drains. Larger private dwellings (flats) were constantly multi-storied and all homes were constructed from standardized fired bricks and provided for separate cooking areas and toilets. Storage facilities for grain and goods for trade were built as were public baths and other buildings intended for various public functions. Urban centres were often planned near riverside or sea-ports. Accurate weights and measures were in use and ports such as Lothal were developed as export centres of early manufactured products from smelted copper and bronze. Kilns (oven for burning) for smelting copper blocks and casting tools were in existence as were metal tools such as curved or circular saws, pierced needles and most significantly, bronze drills with twisted grooves. The drill enabled the production of items with unparalleled precision for the times and could be regarded as an ancient precursor of the modern machine tool. There is also evidence of planned irrigation systems and it appears that fire and flood control measures to protect farms and villages were also in place. Artisans made use of the wheel and clay pottery was decorated in a variety of colours and designs. Cotton was grown and used to produce textiles. Urban centres in the Harappan region traded with each other as well as with counterparts in Babylon, the Persian Gulf, Egypt and possibly the Mediterranean. The span of the Harappan civilization was quite extensive, and included much of modern Sindh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Western UP. But prior to its disappearance, there is also evidence of considerable social decay and disintegration. Excavations from the later phases of the Harappan civilization suggest that population pressures led to greater anarchy in building construction. Urban dwellings became smaller and settlements became more unplanned indicating a breakdown of social practices and structures that promoted urban regulations and enforced construction codes. Between 1800 and 1700 BCE, civilization on the Indus Plain vanished. The degeneration of these people is unknown. One suspected cause is a shift in the Indus River. Another is that people dammed the water along the lower portion of the Indus River without realizing the consequences such as flooding up river. Another suspected cause is a decline in rainfall. Agriculture declined and people abandoned the cities in search of food. Later, a few people of a different culture settled in some of the abandoned cities, in what archaeologists call a squatter period. Then the squatters disappeared. Knowledge of the Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization died until archaeologists discovered the civilization in the mid-19th century. From complex Mohenjo-daro and Harappan towns to Delhis Qutub Minar, Indias indigenous technologies were very sophisticated. They included the design and planning of water supply, traffic flow, natural air conditioning, complex stone work, and construction engineering. In forthcoming sections, we are going to discuss in detail about the ancient Indias civilization and their contributions towards science and technology in the present world. Indians Contribution towards Mathematics In the period of 400 AD to 1200 AD, important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system that we are using today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, trigonometry and algebra formulae. Some of the areas of mathematics studied in ancient and medieval India includes Arithmetic (decimal system, negative numbers, zeros, floating point numbers, number theory, infinity, transfinite numbers, irrational numbers), Geometry (square roots, cube roots, Pythagorean triples, transformation, Pascals triangle), Algebra (quadratic equations, qubic equations and quartic/biquadratic equations), Mathematical logic (formal grammars, formal language theory, the Panini-Backus form, recursion), General mathematics (Fibonacci numbers, earliest forms of Morse code, logarithms, indices, algorithms, algorism) and Trigonometry (trigonometric functions, trigonometric series). There are some evidences showing the application of mathematics by ancient Indians. Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered evidence of the use of practical mathematics. Those people manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favourable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on few ratios like 1/20, 1/10, 1/5 and etc. with the unit weight equalling approximately 28 grams. They mass produced weights in regular geometrical shapes which included hexahedra, barrels, cones and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry. The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler (the Mohenjo-daro ruler) whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Indians Contribution towards Constructions Field The Indus-Sarasvati (Harappan) Civilization was the worlds first to build planned towns with underground drainage, civil sanitation, hydraulic engineering, and air-cooling architecture. Weights and measurements were standardized and oven-baked bricks were invented in India using these guidelines. There are many pioneering (first to explore new ideas/method) items of civil engineering such as drainage systems for water (open and closed), irrigation (water supply) systems, river dams, water storage tanks carved out of rock, granaries with ducts and platforms, moats (wide water channel dug surrounding a place), middle-class style homes with private bathrooms and drainage and even a dockyard (place to repair ships). There is evidence of stairs for multiple-storied buildings. Many towns have separate citadels (military stronghold); strongly fortified upper and lower towns. There are separate worker quarters near copper furnaces (place to heat material at very high temperature). Indians also pioneered many engineering tools for construction, surgery, warfare, etc. This includes the hollow drill, the true saw and the needle with the hole on its pointed end. Indians Contribution through Usage of Materials Since iron can be a secondary product of copper technology, its likely to be origin from India because copper was a well-known technology in many parts of ancient India. A smelting furnace dated 800 BCE is found in Naikund (Maharashtra), India. Recent discoveries reveal that iron was known in the Ganga valley. The Indian wootz steel[1] was very popular in Persian courts for making swords. Rust-free steel was an Indian invention and remained as an Indian skill for centuries. Delhis famous iron pillar, dated 402 CE is considered a metallurgical wonder and shows a very few signs of rust. The famous Damascus steel swords were made from Indian steel imported by Europeans. The acclaimed Sheffield steel in UK was Indian crucible steel. The best brains of European science worked for decades to learn to reverse-engineer how Indians made crucible steel and in this process, modern alloy design and physical metallurgy was developed in Europe. Another important Indian contribution to metallurgy was in the isolation, distillation and use of zinc. From natural sources, zinc content in alloys such as brass can go no higher than 28 per cent. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was Indias discovery of zinc distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal. Brass in Taxashila has been dated from third century BCE to fifth century CE. The earliest confirmed evidence of zinc smelting by distillation is Zawar. This is the earliest place for zinc smelting and production of metallic zinc by distillation process anywhere in the world. Europeans learnt it for the first time in 1743, when expertise was transferred from India. Until then, India had been exporting pure zinc for centuries on an industrial scale. At archaeological sites in Rajasthan, retorts[2] used for the distillation are found in very large numbers even today. Once zinc had become separated into a pure metal, alloys could be made with the required zinc component to provide the required properties. For instance, strength and durability increase with higher zinc component. In addition, copper alloys look like gold when the zinc component is higher than 28 per cent. Most early brass objects found in other countries had less than 10 per cent zinc component, and, therefore, these were not based on zinc distillation technology. It was in Zawar, Rajasthan, where this first became industrialized on a large scale. Zinc mines have been found in Dariba (11th century BCE), Agucha (sixth century BCE) and Zawar (fifth century BCE). These mines have pots and other manufacturing tools of these dates, but the mining could be even older. Unsurprisingly, developments in metallurgy also had their impact on artillery (large guns) production. According to A. Rahman (Science in Medieval India), by the 16th century, the heaviest guns in the world were being cast in India and a variety of weapons were being manufactured in the subcontinent. The Jaigarh cannon factory was one of Indias best and before the crucial battle of 1857, the Jaipur Rajputs laid claim to owning Asias largest cannon. Yet, none of the Rajput cannons were ever used to confront the British who succeeded in conquering the sub-continent without ever having to fight against the countrys best equipped armies, thus demonstrating that technological progress is not an end in itself. Indians Contribution through Usage of Nature Resources Many interesting findings have recently come out about the way forests and trees were managed by each village and how a careful method was applied to harvest medicines, firewood and building material in accordance with natural renewal rates. Discoveries concerning the manufacture and application of natural and artificial dyes were first implemented by Indians. Block printing and dye and other textile-dyeing techniques were popularized. The use of mordants[3] in colour-fast dyeing of textiles became known as did the knowledge of lacquers that could be applied to wood or leather. Paints that could be used on different building materials were developed and elaborate techniques were employed to prevent fading and loss of colour during the heavy monsoons. Indian farmers developed non-chemical, eco-friendly pesticides and fertilizers that have modern applications. These traditional pesticides have been recently revived in India with excellent results, replacing Union Carbides[4] products in certain markets. Crop rotation and soil technology that has been passed down for thousands of years are traditional practices which India pioneered. Historically, Indias agricultural production was large and sustained a huge population compared to other parts of the world. Surpluses (excess of production/supply) were stored for use in a drought year. But the British turned this industry into a cash cow, exporting very large amounts of grain even during food shortages. This caused tens of millions of Indians to die of starvation in the 19th century. Given the importance of fresh water in India, it is no surprise that the technologies to manage water resources were highly advanced from Harappan times onwards. For example, in Gujarat, Chandragupta built the Sudarshan Lake in late 4th century BCE, and was later repaired in 150 BCE by his grandson. Bhopals Raja Bhoj Lake, built in 1014-1053, is so massive that it shows up in satellite images. The Vijayanagar Empire built such a large lake in 14th 15th century CE that it has more construction material than the Great Wall of China. Scientists estimate there were 1.3 million man-made water lakes and ponds across India, some as large as 250 square miles. These are now being rediscovered using satellite imagery. These enabled rain water to be harvested and used for irrigation, drinking, etc. till the following years rainfall. Indians Contribution towards Medical Field Genuine cures were listed with unscientific practices without clear distinction. But during the rational period in India the emphasis on the scientific method led to a much greater level of accuracy with respect to the efficacy of different medicines and medical procedures. The more accurately the Indian medical practitioner was able to observe reality, understand bodily functions and test the efficacy of popular medical techniques, the more successful were the prescribed cures. Dissection of corpses and careful monitoring of different diseases was an important component in the study and practice of medicine. With greater success in treatment came greater confidence and allowed medical practitioners to conduct surgical procedures using a variety of surgical tools though its unsophisticated in comparison to modern surgical equipment. Procedures for inducing unconsciousness or numbing body parts that were to be operated on were required and developed. Tools for excision, incision, puncturing, probing, organ or part extraction, fluid drainage, bloodletting, suturing and cauterization were developed. Various types of bandages and ointments were used as were basic procedures for ensuring cleanliness and limiting contamination. The caesarian section was known, bone-setting reached a high degree of skill, and plastic surgery developed far beyond anything known elsewhere at the time. Indian surgeons also became proficient at the repair of noses, ears and lips lost or injured in battle or by judicially mandated mutilation. Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431 BCE. Ashoka also established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE. While all ancient societies cherished and admired the skills of the medical practitioner, it was the more determined adoption of the scientific approach that enabled Indian medicine to make a quantum leap over the older medical systems of the time. Progress in medicine also led to developments in chemistry and chemical technologies. The manufacture of alkaline substances, medicinal powders, ointments and liquids was systematized, as were chemical processes relating to the manufacture of glass. Advances in food processing (such as manufacture of sugar, condiments and edible oils) took place as did the manufacture of personal hygiene products and beauty aids (such as shampoos, deodorizers, perfumes and cosmetics). Indians Contribution towards Shipping, Trading, Geography and Astronomy Shipbuilding was one of Indias major export industries until the British destroy it and officially prohibited it. Middle Age Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India and not Europe. Some of the worlds largest and most sophisticated ships were built in India and China. There is also extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources. Indians are well known as traders of items like diamond, brass ornaments, gun powders, metal made swords, iron made indigo dye, copper, bronze, wootz steel, textiles, etc. Archaeologists have found geometric compasses which linear scales made of ivory. The compass and other navigation tools were already in use in the Indian Ocean long before Europe. Using their expertise in the science of seafaring, Indians participated in the earliest-known ocean-based trading system. Few people know that an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to captain his ships and take him to India. Deep-sea shipping had existed in India as Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives around 2,000 years ago. Kautilya (sacred scripture) which describes the times that are good and bad for seafaring was used as guidance. Astronomy is one area which has fascinated all mankind from the beginnings of history. The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas (religious literature of India). In India, the first references to astronomy are to be found in the Rig Veda which is dated around 2000 B.C. Vedic Aryans in fact deified (worshipped) the Sun, Stars and Comets. Indians also prepared lunar calendars which were based on lunar cycle. This type of calendar (lunar calendar) is still in use today. According to Sarma (2008): One finds in the Rigveda, intelligent speculations about the genesis (origin) of the universe from nonexistence (non-real), the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary (in leap years) month. Famous mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata gave some great calculation regarding space that is almost correct. He presented his theory of heliostat, which means that planets revolve around the sun. This theory was presented about a millennium before than the theory presented by Galileo. In 20th century, world famous S Chandrashekhar presented his theory regarding black holes. References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_valley_civilization [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indian_science_and_technology [3] Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology H.C. Bhardwaj [4] An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology edited by A.Ghosh Volume I [5] http://yomi.mobi/egate/History_of_Indian_science_and_technology/73/a [6] http://dont-forget-your-passport.blogspot.com/2009/12/ancient-indias-contribution-to-science.html [7] http://members.tripod.com/~INDIA_RESOURCE/technology.htm [8] http://www.indianchild.com/harappa.htm [9] http://www.archaeolink.com/ancient_indus%20and%20indian%20civilizations_ancient_india.htm [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions [1] an exceptional grade of iron ore steel first made in southern and south central India and Sri Lanka perhaps as early as 300 BC [2] a container used in distilling liquids [3] combines with dye and fixes it in material [4] one of the oldest chemical and polymer companies in the United States

Concept of Martyrdom Essay

The world became astounded after it has witnessed one of the greatest tragedies of humankind. September 11, 2001 is the date where the international community has been introduced to an unknown face of an enemy. With no specified structure, its organization remains to be a vague concept with evidences and facts which are not thoroughly determined. The world is unsure who to put the blame when the phenomenon of terrorism has been revealed, thus, resulting into preconceived notions of racism to track down its roots. Perhaps the conscious recognition of terrorism launched a new concept of war in international affairs. The conventional war used to occur between two states and their respective allies, but after the World Trade Center attack, the war is waged against individuals and factions suspected of terrorist activities. Led by the United States, the war on terrorism commenced and military forces moved to alleged havens of terrorist groups which are mostly situated in the Middle East. Information regarding these factions has been acquired and the most famous of them all is named as Al Qaeda. From this information, terrorism eventually earned an identity and a face where the most wanted man in America has been associated as Al Qaeda’s leader. Osama Bin Laden, the notorious man suspected of numerous American embassies bombings even prior to the 9/11 attack. The war to hunt down Al Qaeda revealed other terrorist groups whose network stretched all over the world. As terrorism information expanded to the public, the international community saw how these groups and its members carry out their tasks to be able to hit their targets. From hijacking public transportations to kidnapping, terrorists have been known to be trained to conduct these acts. As the war on terrorism continues, the means of terrorists in fulfilling their tasks are increasing and expanding just as much as the growth of their membership. The following discussion will focus on one method of terrorism which is prominent in attacking sectors of society and have stirred strong concerns from spectators who witness the damages it cause. Suicide terrorism, as derived from its name, usually refers to an individual who has bombs attached on his or her own body and detonate it within the proximity of the target. The hijacking of planes of 9/11 is also considered as part of suicide terrorism. The usage of suicide is not a new means in the field of warfare; however, what made suicide terrorism as horrific as it is today is for the reason that it targets civilians, unlike in conventional war where it aimed at combatants. Since the whole concept of warfare has shifted its participants, acts of terrorism reflect a deeper background which needs to be further understood. First is to provide a general history of suicide attacks prior to 9/11 which focus on the evolvement of using suicide from non-terrorists to terrorists. It will be followed by examining the role of religion to the terrorist factions and how the concept of martyrdom serves as a religious duty. Following the flow of the discussion, this leads to elaborating how these groups perform suicidal attacks operating under principles established by the organization. This is to attempt in looking suicide terrorism in totality to be able to determine its implications on society. History of Suicide Terrorism In his recent book entitled Suicide Bombers in Iraq, Mohammed Hafez (2007) described suicide attacks or terrorism as â€Å"a premeditated attack by an individual who willingly uses his or her body to carry or deliver explosives to attack, kill, or maim others† (p. 6). From the preceding texts it has been briefly mentioned that suicide attack is not a new method to be used in any form of battle. Even prior to the 9/11 incident, suicide attacks has been consistent in the concept of â€Å"self-sacrifice for the interest of a broader cause† (Linden, 2003, p. 77). Before suicide attacks has been used by terrorists — tagged as part of non-state actors in the international community — this form of attack has been utilized by state combatants especially during the world wars. Kamikaze: Tactical Suicide Such notable for using suicide to gain larger benefits is the infamous Japanese Kamikaze which surprised the Americans during the sudden attack of Pearl Harbor. The usage of kamikaze has been used especially at the height of the Pacific war where Japanese pilots crashed their fighter planes into the enemies’ largest warships to further incapacitate its advantage for battle. This form of suicide attacks is determine as the tactical kind of suicide (Battin, 2005, p. 241) but it is more than just a war strategy. It is considered a duty to be fulfilled not just as a soldier but as a Japanese living to the ideology of a dignified death which is deeply embedded in their culture. Lebanon Bombings: Start of the Terror Trend The creation of dynamite from the late 1800s later evolved into customized portable bombs which are attached secretly into public facilities. By the time the production of these explosives became abundant, it has been used for performing small-scale attacks which are more inconspicuous and less suspicious attaining higher possibilities of killing the target. After the major world wars, civil wars ensued within countries especially those which are left torn by the Cold War. Prominent suicide attacks frequently occurred during the civil wars in Middle Eastern countries, one of the most significant events which gave meaning to a new concept for suicide attack are the bombings in Lebanon in early 1980s. The targets became the embassies of foreign states which have been participating in the civil war as either allies or peacekeeping forces (Hafez, p. 7). The high rates of property damages and death tolls prompted for the removal of other foreign forces out of Lebanon which made a significant impression that suicide attacks in this form are effective (Hafez, p.7). The bombings in Lebanon started the trend for the modern day suicide attacks. Basically, the two events that have been mentioned conveyed the division line which showed the difference of how attacks transformed from a part of a war strategy to inducing terror alone. The so-called success of the bombing in Lebanon in 1980s paved the way for the creation of non-state factions who act independently without any government support. Using suicide attacks became an essential method in inducing terror into a society to either kill or send a message to their enemies. Suicide terrorism encompasses a diverse field of goals whether for political reasons, economics, or attaining recognition. However did the purpose of suicide attacks expanded into, performers of this act surely behaved according to a set of principles and ideologies. These principles maybe rooted out from one’s culture such as the Japanese Kamikaze and others can be derived from nationalism, idealism, motivated by personal interests, and religion. The focus of this paper will deal with religion as the main motivation for the modern suicide attacks usually associated with religious extremists in the Middle East.

The Principles of Marketing - Five Core Concepts - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2891 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Essay any type Level High school Did you like this example? Introduction The five core concepts of marketing are; consumer needs/wants/demands, products and services, value/satisfaction/quality, exchanges/transactions/relationships and markets (Kotler, et al., 2008). To be able to understand and cater to all these factors, an organisation can use a variety of marketing theories. This report will outline and critique the various principles of marketing, noting the advantages and disadvantages of each. The theories that will be covered are; 4Ps, marketing, ambush marketing, buzz marketing, market segmentation, targeting and positioning, Ansoffs matrix, PESTEL analysis, porters five forces and micro-environment factors. 4Ps Successful marketing is based upon addressing some very basic, key issues. The 4Ps aims to address these issues, and allows a company to understand some very important aspects of their internal operations. The 4Ps are comprised of; product, price, place and promotion (CIM, 2009). Analysing these factors allows an organisation to put their customers at the centre of their marketing, and the company must do everything in their power to deliver the upmost quality and service to all of their customers. Booms Bitner (1981) provide a list of attributes that each of the 4Ps may include. Although an old model, it is still very much applicable to todays business environment. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Principles of Marketing Five Core Concepts" essay for you Create order Product: Quality, brand name, service line, warranty, capabilities, facilitating goods, tangible clues, price, personnel, physical environment and process of service delivery. Price: Level, discounts and allowances, payment terms, customers own perceived value, quality/price interaction and differentiation. Place: Location, accessibility, distribution channels and distribution coverage. Promotion: Advertisements, personal selling, sales promotion, publicity, personnel, physical environment, facilitating goods, tangible clues and process of service delivery. Furthermore, for the service industry, the 4Ps was extended to the 7Ps. This was mainly due to the higher degree of collaboration between the organisation and the consumer, which the original 4Ps were not taking into consideration(Webster, 1984). This resulted in the framework being extended, to take into account the variety of service attributes that come into play when devising marketing strategies. Service quality is becoming more significant to an organisation, as they can no longer only rely on the benefit of a good to attain and retain consumers (Lusch, et al., 2007). Booms Bitner (1981) provide many of the attributes that the extra 3Ps encompass. These are; Participants: Personnel training, discretion, commitment, incentives, appearance, interpersonal behaviour, attitudes and customer behaviour/degree of involvement. Process: Policies, procedures, mechanisation, employee discretion, customer involvement, customer direction and flow of activities. Physical Evidence: Environment, furnishings, colour, layout, noise level, facilitating goods and tangible clues. Ambush Marketing There is a lot of moral uncertainty surrounding the use of ambush marketing. It is predominantly related to big events and sponsorship deals. Ambush marketing became such a prominent strategy because of the increase in sponsorship deals. This mainly happened because event owners wanted higher returns and it made advertising more effective (Meenaghan, 1998). Furthermore, Meenaghan (1994, p. 79) defined ambush marketing as the practice whereby another company, often a competitor, intrudes upon public attention surrounding the event, thereby deflecting attention toward themselves and away from the sponsor. Although ambush marketing would appear to hold many benefits for a company, at basically no cost, there have been many academics that criticise its uses. Payne (1998) believes ambush marketing jeopardises one of the fundamental facets of business activity, namely truth in advertising and business interactions. On the other hand, other academics criticise the weak-minded view that competitors have a moral obligation to step back and allow an official sponsor to reap all the benefits from a special event (Meenaghan, 1996). In general, ambush marketing comes down the moral perceptions of the marketing manager. As the majority of companies are in business to make profits, then capitalising on any means necessary will be acceptable, and ambush marketing will be a prominent strategy for them to use. Buzz Marketing Word-of-mouth marketing and buzz marketing are very similar, and is a marketers dream (Balter Butman, 2005, p. 161) if successfully implemented. However, it is incredibly difficult to define and implement buzz marketing, as everyday word of mouth conversations tend to be random and spontaneous in nature, occurring in a natural, unpredictable pattern of communication (Ahuja, et al., 2007, p. 152). Buzz marketing is usually implemented through building suspense and tensions around the release of a new product, thus causing media and consumers to constantly talk about the product. It is a relatively free way of marketing, and can reap incredible benefits for the company. The only negative for buzz marketing is the fact that it cannot really be controlled in any way, as it is heavily reliant on consumers spreading the message on behalf of the organisation. The intentions of buzz marketing is obviously meant to be positive, by generating effectively free advertising for an organi sation or their products (Ahuja, et al., 2007). However, word-of-mouth works in both a positive and negative manner, as a bad PR story can quickly be spread across the globe. Furthermore, it is most effective across a young audience, meaning that the message will be spread amongst a certain demographic, but not everyone the organisation was hoping for (Leila Abderrazak, 2013). It is the inability to measure the reach of this type of marketing that makes buzz marketing very risky for an organisation. The message could easily be misinterpreted, there is little control over the direction of the campaign, and it may actually end up causing negative impact on organisation performance (Bloomberg, 2001). Market Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Market segmentation has become an essential element of marketing, especially in developed countries. This is because goods can no longer be sold without considering the specific needs of consumers, and who is likely to purchase the product (Wedel Kamakura, 2000). The main use for market segmentation is to provide guidance on which marketing analysis or strategy an organisation should pursue. Furthermore, Wedel Kamakura (2000) provide a classification of different market segmentation groups that companies should aim to cater to. This is in regards to a general and product-specific view. Combining segmentation with targeting and positioning allows an organisation to learn information about their target markets, consumer preferences, competitors strengths and customer segments (Natter, et al., 2006). Furthermore, the process of STP should be completed in order, with a segmentation analysis being used as the basis of targeting, which can then be used for positioning. Unfortunately, this can make the process long-winded, as an organisation may want to identify only who they target, or where they should position their product (Kotler, et al., 2006). There is also a great need for behavioural profiling throughout S TP, forcing an organisation to conduct even more analysis than they may actually want to (Dholakia Dholakia, 2001; Kotler, et al., 2002). Although and STP analysis can be time-consuming, it does provide an organisation with a comprehensive overlook on a variety of factors that are intrinsic to an organisations success. Ansoffs Matrix In a 1957 report, Ansoff provided a comprehensive definition for product marketing as a joint statement of a product line and the corresponding set of missions which the products are designed to fulfil (Ansoff, 1957, p. 114). This resulted in the creation of the Ansoff Matrix (1965), which is a comprehensive marketing theory to help guide a companys strategic growth decisions. It is comprised of four quadrants, with each giving a general direction as to how a company should proceed with their desired growth. The four quadrants of Ansoffs Matrix are (AM, 2015); Market Penetration: This is about further exploiting a product that exists in an already functioning market. Market penetration is usually made possible through the clever use of promotions, or increasing the attractiveness of a product Product Development: The product development growth strategy focuses on introducing new products into existing markets. This can either be in the form of a complete new product, or the modification of an existing product. Market Development: Sometimes referred to as market extension, this factor of the Ansoff Matrix involves an organisations selling its existing products in a new market. This can be aided by market segmentation, which can help identify potential new markets. Some approaches to this strategy include, new geographical markets or distribution channels. Diversification: Generally known as the most risky growth strategy, diversification involves an organisation developing new products into new markets. There is a lot of risk in this strategy because an organisation will not be knowledgeable on either the product or the market they are entering. Heavy planning and research are vital for a diversification strategy to be successful. Different organisations benefit from different strategies. For example, a study conducted by Watts, et al., (1998) concluded that the most appropriate strategies for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) would be product development or market development. This is because most of these organisations would not have the resources to successfully implement a diversification strategy, and the growth from market penetration would be too slow. A larger organisation may well be more successful in diversification, as they have more expendable resources. Macro Environment Marketing PESTEL PESTEL stands for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal. Furthermore, it is a comprehensive framework used by organisations to help analyse the macro-environment factors that are affecting daily operations. A PESTLE analysis is in effect an audit of an organisations environmental influences with the purpose of using this information to guide strategic decision-making (CIPD, 2015, p. n.p.). After a company has conducted a PESTLE analysis, they should use their findings to help guide any strategic decision making to minimise the impact of external forces. Political: The main political factors of PEST deals with the effects government can impose on an organisation. This can include things such as, new legislation, changes in taxation, minimum wages, and employee benefits. Economic: Some of the most important economic factors that a PESTEL analysis will investigate are the economy systems and structures, resource status, the level of economy developingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Yingfa Hong, 2010, p. 563). If an economy strengthens, then it would usually have a positive effect on the majority of companies performance, however this can be largely dependent on what areas of the economy strengthen. Social: One of the most significant factors of the PESTEL is the socio-culture factor. The socio-culture factors are usually in continuous change, and have a massive impact on how organisations are managed, and how leaders have to behave if they want any followers (Hussey, 1998). Technology: One of the fastest growing and most rapidly changing factors of the PESTEL analysis is the technological environment (Henry, 2008). Some examples of technological factors include; RD activity, Automation and Technological Developments (NetMBA, 2015). A company must ensure they are maintaining top quality equipment to produce the most competitive products. Environmental: The main environmental factors that a company will look at through a PESTEL analysis are, green issues that affect the environment, renewable energy sources and waste/disposal (App Rao, et al., 2008). Consumers are becoming more concerned with their environmental impact, thus affecting their purchasing choices. Legal: Similar to political, legal factors look at how legislation affects a company. This can include, competition law and government policy, employment law and safety law. It is of vital importance for a company to keep up-to-date with all relevant legislation (App Rao, et al., 2008). Porters Five Forces Porters Five Forces model can have a huge impact on the direction and shape of an organisations decision making. If conducted successfully it is a great tool to guide all strategic marketing activities. The five components of Porters Five Forces are: Threat of new Entrants: New entrants to an industry bring new capacity, the desire to gain market share, and often substantial resources (Porter, 2000, p. 138). Threat of Substitutes: A substitute performs the same or a similar function as an industrys product by a different means (Porter, 2008, p. 17). Bargaining Power of Customers: Powerful customers can capture more value by forcing down prices, demanding better quality or more service, and generally playing industry participants off against one another, all at the expense of industry profitability (Porter, 2008, p. 14). Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Suppliers can exert bargaining power over participants in an industry by threatening to raise prices or reduce the quality of purchased goods and services (Porter, 1998, p. 27). Rivalry among Existing Competitors: Rivalry among existing competitors takes many familiar forms, including price discounting, new product introductions, advertising campaigns and service improvements (Porter, 2008, p. 18). Micro Environment Marketing One of the most widely used and comprehensive frameworks for analysing the micro-environment is the SWOT analysis. This analysis measures the internal strengths and weaknesses of an organisation, and the external opportunities and threats. Having identified these factors, an organisation should build strategies which may build on the strengths, negate the weaknesses, exploit the opportunities or counter the threats (Dyson, 2004). These strategies can be further guided by the use of the macro-environment analysis, and can supplement the variety of different marketing techniques mentioned above, such as ambush marketing or market segmentation. Furthermore, these strategies can be generated through the use of a TOWS matrix, with forms relationships between the different variable to draw up a variety of strategies that the firm can utilise. Conclusion Overall there are a variety of methods that an organisation can utilise in order to successfully analyse the market, and market their products. It is imperative that an organisation knows how to implement both of these methods, as it will have a huge impact on the overall success of the organisation. The 4Ps is a great analysis for a company to conduct first, as it outlines all the fundamental aspects that effect an organisation. Furthermore, an external analysis should always be conducted, especially the PESTEL and Porters Five Forces analysis. This is because it outlines all important external factors, such as competitions activities or new legislation. Understanding these factors will shape the marketing strategy that a company wishes to pursue. Depending on what the external analysis shows to a competitor, they can then choose which market strategy they wish to pursue. This could involve using an Ansoff Matrix, or just pursuing an ambush, buzz, push and pull or market segmen tation strategy. One strategy cannot be anchored to a certain industry or company, as it is only through extensive analysis that a company will know which the optimum strategy is. Bibliography Ahuja, R. D., Michels, T. A., Walker, M. M. Weissbuch, M., 2007. Teen perceptions of disclosure in buzz marketing. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24(3), pp. 151-159. AM, 2015. What is the Ansoff Matrix?. Available at: https://www.ansoffmatrix.com/ Ansoff, I., 1957. Strategies for Diversification. Harvard Business Review, 35(5), pp. 113-124. Ansoff, I., 1965. Corporate Strategy. New York: McGraw Hill. App Rao, C., Parvathiswara Rao, B. Sivaramakrishna, K., 2008. Strategic Management and Business Policy. 1st ed. New Delhi: Excel Books India. Balter, D. Butman, J., 2005. The Grapevine. London: Penguin Group. Bloomberg, 2001. Buzz Marketing. [Online] Available at:  https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2001-07-29/buzz-marketing Booms, B. H. Bitner, M. J., 1981. Marketing strategies and organization structures for service firms. In: Marketing of Services. Chicago: American Marketing Association, pp. 47-51. CIM, 2009. Marketing and the 7Ps, s.l.: Chartered Institute of Marketing. CIPD, 2015. PESTLE analysis. [Online] Available at:  https://www.cipd.co.uk/knowledge/strategy/organisational-development/pestle-analysis-factsheet Dholakia, R. Dholakia, N., 2001. Social marketing and development. In: Handbook on marketing and society. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Dyson, R. G., 2004. Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick. European Journal of Operational Research, 152 (3), pp. 631-640. Henry, A., 2008. Understanding Strategic Management. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Hussey, D., 1998. Stategic Management: From Theory to Implementation. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Kotler, P., Armstrong, G. Saunders, J., 2008. Principles of Marketing. 5th ed. s.l.:Prentice Hall. Kotler, P., Roberto, N. Lee, N., 2002. Social marketing: Improving the quality of life. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. Kotler, P., Roberto, N. Lesiner, T., 2006. Alleviating Poverty: A Macro/Micro Marketing Perspective. Journal of Macromarketing, 26(2), pp. 233-239. Leila, C. Abderrazak, G., 2013. The Impact of the Effectiveness of a Buzz Marketing Campaign on the Image, Awareness and Purchasing Decision: The Moderating Role of involvement, s.l.: Journal of Marketing Research Case Studies . 2013. pp. 1-8Lusch, R. F., Vargo, S. L. OBrien, M., 2007. Competing through service: Insights from service-dominant logic. Journal of Retailing, 83(1), pp. 5-18. Meenaghan, T., 1994. Point of view: Ambush marketing Immoral or imaginative practice?. Journal of Advertising Research, 34(3), pp. 77-88. Meenaghan, T., 1996. Ambush marketing A threat to corporate sponsorship. Sloan Management Review, 38 (1), pp. 103-113. Meenaghan, T., 1998. Ambush marketing: Corporate strategy and consumers reactions. Psychology and Marketing, 15(4), pp. 305-322. Natter, M., Mild, A., Wagner, U. Taudes, A., 2006. Planning new tariffs at tele.ring à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the applicati on and impact of an integrated segmentation, targeting and positioning tool,Marketing Science, 27. 600-609 NetMBA, 2015. PEST Analysis. [Online] Available at: https://www.netmba.com/strategy/pest/ Payne, M., 1998. Ambush marketing: The undeserved advantage. Psychology and Marketing., 15(4), pp. 323-331. Porter, M. E., 1998. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. New York: The Free Press. Porter, M. E., 2000. How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy. Harvard Business Review, p. 138. Porter, M. E., 2008. On Competition. Boston: Harvard Business Review. Watts, G., Cope, J. Hulme, M., 1998. Ansoffs Matrix, pain and gain: Growth strategies and adaptive learning among small food producers. Behavior Research, 4(2), pp. 101-111. Webster, F. E., 1984. Industrial Marketing Strategy. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley Sons. Wedel, M. Kamakura, W. A., 2000. Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Methodological Foundations. 2nd ed. Norwell: Klu wer Academic Publishers. Yingfa, S. Hong, Y., 2010. The Risk Study of E-Governance Based on PEST Analysis Model. Guangzhou, International Conference on E-Business and E-Government.

Mistletoe Toxicity - Is Mistletoe Really Poisonous

While kissing under the mistletoe is perfectly acceptable, eating the plant or its berries is not a good idea. Is mistletoe really poisonous? Many of us know someone who ate a berry or two as a kid and lived to tell the tale. Were they just lucky or is it okay to eat a few berries? Key Takeaways There are multiple species of mistletoe. All of them produce toxic compounds.The leaves and berries contain the highest concentration of dangerous chemicals.Most adults can eat a few berries without harm, but children and pets are at risk of poisoning.Mistletoe is used to treat high blood pressure and cancer. Toxic Chemicals in Mistletoe The answer is that the risk of poisoning depends on the type of mistletoe and what part of the plant is eaten. There are several species of mistletoe. All are hemiparasitic plants that grow on host trees, such as oak and pine. The Phoradendron species contain a toxin called phoratoxin, which can cause blurred vision, nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood pressure changes, and even death. The Viscum species of mistletoe contain a slightly different cocktail of chemicals, including the poisonous alkaloid tyramine, which produce essentially the same symptoms. The leaves and berries contain the highest concentration of toxic chemicals. Alternatively, drinking a tea from the plant can result in sickness and possibly death. That being said, the average healthy adult can tolerate a few berries. The risk of poisoning is higher for children and particularly for pets. Most of the risk comes from the effect the proteins in the plan have on the cardiovascular system. Therapeutic Uses of Mistletoe Although mistletoe can be dangerous, it also has therapeutic uses. The plant has been used medicinally in Europe for hundreds of years to treat arthritis, high blood pressure, epilepsy, and infertility. However, its important to remember the species in Europe (Viscum album) is less toxic than the species found in America (Phoradendron serotinum). Some studies indicate mistletoe may be useful in treating cancer, although further evidence is needed. According to the National Cancer Institute, mistletoe extract has been demonstrated to affect the immune system and kill cancer cells in the laboratory. It may also decrease side effects of radiation and chemotherapy. However, its use is not approved by the FDA. While mistletoe is not used in the United States, an injectable form of the plant is available in Europe  as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Mistletoe tea and berries made in tea may be used to treat hypertension at a dose of 10 g/day. For the most part, mistletoe therapies are used in healthy adults, although there are reports of successful use in pediatric patients. The plant is not recommended for patients who have leukemia, brain tumors, or malignant lymphoma or for lactating or pregnant women. Mistletoe is also used in veterinary herbal medicine. The Bottom Line European mistletoe ingestion has caused cases of poisonings and sometimes deaths. However, American mistletoe isnt as toxic. A study of 1754 American mistletoe exposures revealed none resulted in death, even though 92% of the cases involved children. Another study of 92 cases reported to poison control centers revealed no cases of death, even though up to 20 berries and 5 leaves were eaten. In one case, a child suffered a seizure, but researchers were unable to definitively link it to mistletoe consumption. Eating one or a few berries is unlikely to cause sickness or death. However, anaphylactic reactions are known, so its important to watch for indications of a reaction to the plant. Consumption of a large number of berries is extremely dangerous and warrants a call to Poison Control. The number for Poison Control is 1-800-222-1222. Sources Hall, A.H.; Spoerke, D.G.; Rumack, B.H. (1986). Assessing Mistletoe Toxicity. Ann Emerg Med. 11:1320-3.Horneber, M.A., Bueschel. G.; Huber, R.; Linde, K.; Rostock, M. (2008). Mistletoe therapy in oncology.  Cochrane Database Syst Rev  (Systematic review) (2): CD003297.Krenzelok, E.P.; Jacobsen, T.D.; Aronis, J. (1997). American Mistletoe Exposures. Am J Emerg Med. 15:516-20.Spiller, H.A.; Willias, D.B.; Gorman, S.E.; et al. (1996). Retrospective Study of Mistletoe Ingestion. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 34:405-8.Suzzi, Giovanna; Torriani, Sandra (2015). Editorial: Biogenic amines in foods. Frontiers in Microbiology. 6: 472. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00472